Forskning och litteratur

Pilotstudien 2002-2005

Pilotstudien jämförde 4 PALS-skolor med 4 kontrollskolor (årskurs 3-7) innan påbörjad PALS-implementering tills i slutet av det andra året med PALS-arbete på skolorna. På alla PALS-skolor i studien fanns det en hög grad av beteendeproblem enligt lärarskattningar, till och med högre än på kontrollskolorna från början.

I pilotstudien var man intresserad av att se om det fanns några skillnader mellan PALS-skolor och kontrollskolor på följande faktorer: beteendeproblem i skolan, grad av allvarliga beteendeproblem, nyanlända elevers sociala anpassning och skolprestation samt lärarnas känsla av kollektiv tilltro till sina förmågor att främja elevernas framgång.

Enligt resultat i pilotstudien så framkom PALS som en lovande interventionsmodell som förebygger problembeteende. Det blev en signifikant minskning av problembeteenden i såväl gemensamma utrymmen på skolorna som i klassrummet i alla skolor över tid, dessa effekter var betydligt större för PALS-skolorna än för kontrollskolorna (Sørlie & Ogden, 2007). Tydliga skillnader mellan PALS- skolor och kontrollskolor hittades för minskningar i allvarliga incidenter och utagerande över tid. På kontrollskolorna hittade man oönskade effekter där allvarliga incidenter och internaliseringsproblem ökade på dessa skolor (Sørlie & Ogden, 2007).

Utöver generella effekter på elevernas beteende såg man även specifika effekter för nyanlända elever. Det blev en signifikant positiv ökning av dessa elevers sociala kompetens jämfört med enbart i PALS- skolor, och en positiv tendens för ökning av skolprestationer i PALS-skolor jämfört med kontrollskolor för dessa elever (Ogden, Sørlie & Hagen, 2007).

PALS lyckades också att stärka lärarnas kollektiva känsla av kompetens för att skapa en skolmiljö som främjar elevers framgång, och att det i sin tur bidrar till det positiva utfallet. Den kollektiva känslan har en betydligt större påverkan än den enskilda lärarens känsla av kompetens (Sørlie, Ogden & Olseth, 2015). Studien visade även att ett gott resultat på PALS-skolorna är förknippat med implementeringskvalité; d.v.s. att ju mer skolorna håller sig till PALS-strategier såsom de lärs ut i manualen desto bättre effekter på elevbeteende och skolmiljön (Sørlie & Ogden 2007).

Effektstudien 2007-2012

Som en uppföljning på pilotstudien utfördes en effektivitetsstudie i en större skala och med förstärkt vetenskaplig metodologi, denna gång med 65 skolor (årskurs 1-7) (Sørlie & Ogden, 2014). I den här studien jämförde man 3 olika interventioner: ”skolan som vanligt” (kontroll; 20 skolor), PALS i sin helhet (28 skolor) och PBS (förkortad version av PALS; 18 skolor). Det var 6 mätpunkter under 4 år i studien:

1. 6 månader innan påbörjad intervention
2. Samtidigt som interventionerna drog igång i början av läsåret
3. I slutet av första året
4. I slutet av andra året
5. I slutet av tredje året (efter avslutad PALS-implementering)
6. I slutet av ett fjärde, uppföljningsår.

Resultat på studien visar att PALS i sin helhet ledde till en signifikant minskning av elever som blev segregerad på grund av beteendeproblem (37.5 %) jämförd med kontrollskolor som ökade segregering med 54 %. Både PALS-skolor och ”skolan som vanligt” rapporterade en tendens för minskningar i alla områden efter ett år - problembeteende i klassrummet och gemensamma utrymmen, inlärningsmiljö i klassrummet; tilltro till förmåga (både kollektiv och individuell) att skapa en miljö som främjar lärande, positivt beteendestöd och korrigering av beteende – men effekterna för PALS-skolor var betydligt större. Interventionerna skiljde sig signifikant efter 1 år enbart när det gäller minskning i problembeteende i skolors gemensamma utrymmen. Däremot efter 3 år var PALS- skolorna betydligt starkare än kontrollskolorna i 5 av 7 områden: beteende i gemensamma utrymmen och i klassrummet, klimat i klassrummet, positivt beteendestöd och korrigering av beteende.

Såväl PALS-skolor som ”skolan som vanligt” visade positiva tendenser. Hur förklarar man det? 15 av 18 aktiva kontrollskolor höll på med en systematisk implementering av 1-3 andra evidensbaserade program samtidigt som studien pågick, vilket innebär att bara 3 skolor praktiserade ”som vanligt.”

Slutsatser

PALS har signifikanta och positiva effekter på inkludering; grad av beteendeproblem i skolan; inlärningsmiljö i klassrummet; lärarens känsla av tilltro till sin förmåga och skolpersonalens beteende/strategier. En slutsats av studien är att, den från början framtagna amerikanska modellen, kan importeras i Europeiska länder i enlighet med modellens mål, teoretisk grund, kärnkomponenter och struktur. Jämförelser av effekter mellan PALS-skolor visade att skillnader i skolans storlek och implementeringskvalité ledde till olika effekter (bättre resultat för mindre och mellanstora skolor än för stora skolor och bättre effekter för hög jämfört med låg implementeringsgrad).
 

Ogden, T., Sørlie, M-A., & Hagen, K. A. (2007). Building strength through enhancing social competence in immigrant students in primary school. A pilot study. Journal of Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 12, 105–117. doi:10.1080/13632750701315508

Sørlie, M.-A., & Ogden, T. (2007) Immediate Impacts of PALS: A school-wide multilevel programme targeting behaviour problems in elementary school. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 51, 471-492. doi:10.1080/00313830701576581

Sørlie, M.-A., & Ogden, T, & Olseth, R. A. (2007). Preventing Problem Behavior in School through School-Wide Staff Empowerment: Intervention Outcomes. World Journal of Education al Research, 2 (2), 117-139. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/wje

Sørlie, M.-A., & Ogden, T, & Olseth, R. A. (2016). Examining Teacher Outcomes of the School-Wide Positive Behavior Support MOdel in NOrway: Perceived Efficacy and Behavior Managment.

Sørlie, M.-A., & Ogden, T. (2014). Reducing threats to validity by design in a nonrandomized experiment of a school-wide prevention model. International Journal of School & Educational Psychology, 4, 235 –246. doi:10.1080/21683603.2014.881309

Sørlie, M.-A., & Ogden, T (2015): School-Wide Positive Behavior Support–Norway: Impacts on Problem Behavior and Classroom Climate. International Journal of School & Educational Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/21683603.2015.1060912

Barrett, S., Bradshaw, C., & Lewis-Palmer, T. (2008). Maryland state-wide PBIS initiative. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 10, 105-114.

Benedict, E., Horner, R.H., & Squires, J. (2007). Assessment and implementation of Positive Behavior Support in preschools. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 27(3), 174-192.

Biglan, A. (1995). Translating what we know about the context of antisocial behavior in to a lower prevalence of such behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 479-492.

Blonigen, B., Harbaugh, W., Singell, L., Horner, R.H., Irvin, L., & Smolkowski, K. (2008). Application of economic analysis to school-wide positive behavior support programs. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions.

Bohanon, H., Fenning, P., Carney, K., Minnis, M., Anderson-Harriss, S., Moroz, K., Hicks, K., Kasper, B., Culos, C., Sailor, W., & Piggott, T. (2006). School-wide application of positive behavior support in an urban high school: A case study. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 8(3), 131-145.

Boneshefski, M., & Runge, T., (2014). Addressing disproportionate discipline practices within a school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports framework: A practical guide for calculating and using disproportionality rates. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 16(3) 149-158.

Burke, M., Davis, J., Hagan-Burke, S., Lee Y, Fogarty, M. (2014). Using SWPBS expectations as a screening tool to predict behavioral risk in middle school. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 16(1) 5-17.

Chaparro, E., Smolkowski, K., Baker, S., Hanson, N., & Ryan-Jackson, K. (2012) A model for system-wide collaboration to support integrated social behavioral and literacy evidence-based practices. Psychology in the Schools, 49(5), 465-482.

Chaparro, E., Ryan Jackson, K., Baker, S. & Smolkowski, K., (2012) Effective behavioural and instructional support systems: An integrated approach to behaviour and academic support at the district level, Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 5:3, 161-176

Chapman, D., & Hofweber, C. (2000). Effective behavior support in British Columbia. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2(4), 235-237.

Chitiyo, M., May, M., & Chitiyo, G., (2012). An assessment of the evidence-base for school-wide positive behavior support. Education and Treatment of Children, 35(1) 1-24.

Coffey, J., & Horner, R., (2012). The sustainability of schoolwide positive behavior interventions and supports. Exceptional Children, 78(4) 407-422.
Colvin, G., & Fernandez, E. (2000). Sustaining Effective Behavior Support Systems in an Elementary School. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2(4), 251-253.

Curtis, R., Van Horne, J., Robertson, P., & Karvonen, M. (2010). Outcomes of a school-wide positive behavior support program. Professional School Counseling 13:3 159-164.

De Pry, R. L., & Sugai, G. (2002). The effect of active supervision and precorrection on minor behavioral incidents in a sixth grade general education classroom. Journal of Behavioral Education, 11, 255-267.

Doolittle, J., & Horner R., (2007). Sustaining school-wide positive behavior support. Manuscript in preparation.

Duda, M.A., Dunlap, G., Fox, L., Lentini, R., & Clarke, S. (2004). An experimental evaluation of positive behavior support in a community preschool program. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 24(3), 143-155.

Farkas, M., Simonson, B., Migdole, S., Donovan, M., Clemens, K., Cicchese, V. (2012) Schoolwide positive behavior support in an alternative school setting: An evaluation of fidelity, outcomes and social validity of Tier I implementation. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 20 (4), 275-288.

Fanning, P., Theodos, J., Benner, C., & Bohanon-Edmonson, H. (2004). Integrating proactive discipline practices into codes of conduct. Journal of School Violence, 3(1), 45-61.

Galloway, R., Panyan, M., Smith, C. & Wessendorf, S. (2008) Systems change with school-wide positive behavior supports: Iowa’s work in progress. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 10(2), 129-135.

George, H., & Kincaid, D. (2008). Building district-level capacity for positive behavior support. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 10(1), 20-32.

Hirsch, E. J., Lewis-Palmer, T., Sugai, G., & Schnacker, L. (2004). Using school bus discipline referral data in decision making: Two case studies. Preventing School Failure, 48(4), 4-9.

Horner, R.H., Sugai, G., Todd, A.W., & Lewis-Palmer, T. (2005). School-wide positive behavior support. In L. Bambara & L. Kern (Eds.) Individualized supports for students with problem behaviors: Designing positive behavior plans. (pp. 359-390) New York: Guilford Press.

Irwin D., & Algozzine, R. (2005) North Carolina Positive Behavior Supports Evaluation Report. Unpublished evaluation report.

Knoff, H. (2000). Organizational development and strategic planning for the millennium: A blueprint toward effective school discipline, school safety, and crisis prevention. Psychology in the Schools, 37, 17-32.

Lassen, S., Steele, M., & Sailor, W. (2006). The relationship of school-wide positive behavior support to academic achievement in an urban middle school. Psychology in Schools, 43(6), 701-712.

Lewis, T. J., Colvin, G., & Sugai, G. (2000). The effects of precorrection and active supervision on the recess behavior of elementary school students. Education and Treatment of Children, 23, 109-121.

Lewis, T., Hudson, S., Richter, M., & Johnson, N. (2004). Scientifically supported practices in EBS: A proposed approach and brief review of current practices. Behavior Disorders, 29, 247-259.

Lewis, T. J., Powers, L. J., Kelk, M. J., & Newcomer, L. (2002). Reducing problem behaviors on the playground: An investigation of the application of school-wide positive behavior supports. Psychology in the Schools, 39, 181-190.

Lohrmann-O’Rourke, S., Knoster, T., Sabatine, K., Smith, D., Horvath, G., & Llewellyn, G. (2000). School-wide Application of PBS in the Bangor Area School District. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2(4), 238-240.

Luiselli, J. K, Putnam, R. F, Handler, M. W, & Feinberg, A. B. (2005). Whole-School Positive Behaviour Support: Effects on student discipline problems and academic performance. Educational Psychology, 25(2-3), 183-198.

Luiselli, J. Putnam, R., & Sunderland M. (2002). Longitudinal evaluation of behavior support interventions in public middle school. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 4(3), 182-188.

Marin, A., Filce, H. (2013). The relationship between implementation of School-wide Positive Behavior Intervention and Supports and Performance on State Accountability Measures. Sage Open, (3) 1-10. DOI: 10.1177/2158244013503831

Mathews, S., McIntosh, K., Frank, J., & May, S., (2014). Critical features predicting sustained implementation of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 16(3), 168-178.

Mayer, G. R., Butterworth, T., Nafpaktitis, M., & Suzer-Azaroff, B. (1983). Preventing school vandalism and improving discipline: A three year study. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 16, 355-369.

Metzler, C. W., Biglan, A., Rusby, J. C., & Sprague, J. R. (2001). Evaluation of a comprehensive behavior management program to improve school-wide positive behavior support. Education and Treatment of Children, 24, 448-479.

McCrary, D., Lechtenberger, D., & Wand, E. (2012). The effect of schoolwide positive behavioral supports on children in impoverished rural community schools. Preventing School Failure, 56 (1) 1-7.

McIntosh, K., Flannery, K. B., Sugai, G., Braun, D., & Cochrane, K. L. (2008). Relationships between academics and problem behavior in the transition from middle school to high school. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 10(4), 243-255.

McIntosh, K., Horner, R.H., Chard, D., Boland, J., & Good, R. (2006). The use of reading and behavior screening measures to predict non-response to school-wide positive behavior support: A longitudinal analysis. School Psychology Review, 35, 275-291.

McIntosh, K., Mercer, S., Hume, A., Frank, F., Turri, M., and Mathews, S., (2013). Factors relate to sustained implementation of schoolwide positive behavior support. Exceptional Children, 79(3) 293-311.

McIntosh, K., predy, L., Upreti, G., Hume, A., Turri, M., Mathews, S. (2014) Perceptions of contextual features related to implementation and sustainability of school-wide Positive Behavior Support. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 16(1), 31-43.

McIntosh, K., Sadler, C., & Brown, J. A. (2012). Kindergarten reading skill level and change in as risk factors for chronic problem behavior. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14(1) 17-28.

Muscott, H., & Mann, E. & LeBrun (2008). Positive behavioral interventions and supports in New Hampshire: Effects of large-scale implementation of schoolwide positive behavior support on student discipline and academic achievement. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 10(3), 190-205.

Nakasato, J. (2000). Data-based Decision-making in Hawaii’s Behavior Support Effort. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2(4), 247-250.
Nelson, J. R. (1996). Designing schools to meet the needs of students who exhibit disruptive behavior. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 4, 147-161.

Nelson, J. R., Colvin, G., & Smith, D. J. (1996). The effects of setting clear standards on students’ social behavior in common areas of the school. The Journal of At-Risk Issues, Summer/Fall, 10-17.

Nelson, J.R., Hurley, K., Snyhorst. L., Epstein, M., Stage, S., & Buckley, J. (2009). The child outcomes of a behavior model. Exceptional Children, 76, 7-30.

Nelson, J.R., Martella, R., & Marchand-Martella, N. (2002). Maximizing student learning: The effects of a comprehensive school-based program for preventing problem behaviors. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 10, 136-148.

Morrissey, K., Bohanon, H., & Fenning, P. (2010). Teaching and acknowledging expected behaviors in an urban high school. Teaching Exceptional Children, May/June 27-35.

Nelson, J. R., Johnson, A., & Marchand-Martella, N. (1996). Effects of direct instruction, cooperative learning, and independent learning practices on the classroom behavior of students with behavioral disorders: A comparative analysis. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 4, 53-62.

Nelson, J. R., Martella, R., & Galand, B. (1998). The effects of teaching school expectations and establishing a consistent consequence on formal office disciplinary actions. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 6, 153-161.

Nersesian, M., Todd, A., Lehmann, J., & Watson, J. (2000). School-wide Behavior Support Through District-Level System Change. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2 (4), 244-246.

Pas, E., & Bradshaw, C.P., (2012). Examining the association between implementation and outcomes. Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 39(4), 417-433.

Pas, E., Bradshaw, C.P., & Mitchell, M. M. (2011). Examining the validity of office discipline referrals as an indicator of student behavior problems. Pychology in the Schools, 48(6), 541-555.

Putnam, R. F., Handler, M. W., Ramirez-Platt, C. M., & Luiselli, J. K. (2003). Improving student bus-riding behavior through a whole-school intervention. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 583-589.

Putnam, R.F., Luiselli, J.K., Handler, M.W., & Jefferson G.L. (2003). Evaluating student discipline practices in a public school through behavioral assessment of office referrals. Behavior Modification, 27, 505-523.

Putnam, R.F., Luiselli, J.K. & Sunderland, M. (2002). Longitudinal evaluation of behavior support intervention in a public middle school. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 4, 182-188.

Sadler, C. (2000). Effective Behavior Support Implementation at the District Level: Tigard-Tualatin School District. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2(4), 241-243.

Safran, S. P. & Oswald, K. (2003). Positive behavior supports: Can schools reshape disciplinary practices? Exceptional Children, 69, 361-373.

Skiba, R. J., Peterson, R. L., & Williams, T. (1997). Office referrals and suspensions: Disciplinary intervention in middle schools. Education and Treatment of Children, 20, 295-315.

Simonson, B., Britton, L., & Young D. (2010). School-wide positive behavior support in an alternative school setting: A case study. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 12, 180-191.

Simonson, B., Eber, L., Black, A., Sugai G., Lewandowski, H., Sims, B., & Myers, D. (2012). Illinois statewide positive behavioral interventions and supports: Evolution and impact on student outcomes across years. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 14(1) 5-16.

Solomon, B., Klein, S., Hintze, J., Cressey, J., & Peller, S. (2012). A meta-analysis of school-wide positive behavior support: An exploratory study using single-case synthesis. Psychology in the Schools. 49(2), 105-121.

Sprague, J. R., Walker, H., Golly, A., White, K., Myers, D. R., & Shannon, T. (2002). Translating research into effective practice: The effects of a universal staff and student intervention on key indicators of school safety and discipline. Education and Treatment of Children, 24(4), 495-511.

Stewart, R.M., Benner, G.J., Martella, R.C., Marchand-Martella, N.E. (2007). Three-tier models of reading and behavior: A research review. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 9, 239-253.

Sulzer-Azaroff, B., & Mayer, G. R. (1994). Achieving educational excellence: Behavior analysis for achieving classroom and schoolwide behavior change. San Marcos, CA: Western Image.

Taylor-Greene & Kartub, D. (2000). Durable implementation of School-wide Behavior Support: The High Five Program. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2(4), 231-232.

Taylor-Greene, S., Brown, D., Nelson, L., Longton, J., Gassman, Cohen, J., Swartz, J., Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., & Hall, S. (1997). School-wide behavioral support: Starting the year off right. Journal of Behavioral Education, 7, 99-112.

Vaughn, B., White, R., Dunlap, G., & Strobeck, S. (in press). A case study of a classroom intervention for problem behaviors: Collateral effects and social validation. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions.